There are very few things as important to either professional chefs or those who cook simply for pleasure as the recipes they have in their collections. Whether we collect recipes for our own use, to share them with colleagues or students, to publish them in books or journals or simply for the fun of having them to read is unimportant. What is important is that our recipes are readable, that they give us a fair guarantee that the dish we prepare from them today, tomorrow or next year will be basically the same and that if we pass them on to someone else that he or she will be able to have more or less the same chance of success.

Unfortunately, a great many of us do not know how to properly write a recipe. In my various professional roles, for example, I receive a great many recipes that have been submitted for possible inclusion in either a newspaper or magazine. Because many of the recipes are so badly written, they serve to trigger my sense of humor more than my appetite. Take, for example, one recipe that I recently received.

8 eggs, large shrimp, 2 slices of bread, clarified butter, salt and pepper, 1 container sweet cream

Heat the clarified butter in a frying pan and fry the bread slices. Peel the shrimp. Place butter in 4 ramekins and melt it. Break two eggs into each ramekin and bake for 2 minutes. Put the cream and nutmeg in a saucepan and boil. Take the eggs out of the oven, put the shrimps on top of them and pour over the cream. Place in the oven again until done. Serve with the small croutons.

My objections to this recipe are many, but the most important is that trying to prepare anything from it would be almost impossible. The person who wrote it gives us not a clue from where the recipe has come. He did not even bother to give it a name. The amounts of the quantities of the shrimps and clarified butter are left entirely to our imaginations as is the question of whether the author wants us to use a container that holds 150 ml, 250 ml or a half liter of sweet cream. A glance at the instructions for how to prepare the dish also reveals that several of the ingredients have been left out of the list altogether.

The instructions themselves are almost indecipherable. Frying the bread is fine but later we are told to use croutons. Precisely what miracle transformed whole bread slices into toasted croutons is not stated. How much butter is to go in each of the ramekins seems to the author not important. Nor does he seem to care very much about the temperature of his oven, how long we should boil the nutmeg and cream mixture (there was no nutmeg in the list of ingredients).

Even as a person who enjoys reading recipes, I found this one beneath contempt. Perhaps only by chance, I recognized the recipe as a classic dish of Normandy, and made a point of finding the original. The differences are enormous.

Baked Eggs with Cream and Shrimps
Adapted from a Recipe by Michel and Albert Roux

80 gr. clarified butter
2 slices of white bread, with the crust trimmed and cut into small cubes
40 gr. butter salt and freshly ground pepper
8 eggs
150 ml. sweet cream
a small pinch of nutmeg
4 large or 8 small shrimps, peeled

Prepare croutons by heating half of the clarified butter in a skillet and in this frying the bread cubes gently until golden. Drain the croutons and then spread them on paper toweling.

Divide the remaining butter between 4 individual ramekins and melt it over a very low heat. Season the bottom of each ramekin with salt and pepper and then break 2 eggs into each. Bake in an oven that has been preheated to 200 degrees Celsius (400 Fahrenheit) for 2 minutes. Meanwhile put the cream and nutmeg in a saucepan and boil for 2 - 3 minutes. Take the eggs out of the oven; the whites should be half-set and the yolks not cooked but just warm. Arrange the shrimps on top of the eggs and pour over the hot cream. Return the ramekins to the oven until the eggs are done to your taste (about 2 - 3 minutes longer). When the eggs come out of the oven scatter croutons over the them

The First Written Recipes

It was probably during the 6th century BC when men and women first felt the need make a permanent record of their recipes and there is a good chance that that the practice was begun by a group of generals in the Persian army. The logic of the generals was simple enough. Cyrus the Great, who had founded the empire, insisted that all soldiers, no matter what their other work might be, would also be fighting men. Not even the cooks of generals were exempt, and this meant that from day to day even the best of cooks might die in battle and his recipes, all of which were stored in his head, would be lost. The generals were not so concerned about the death of their cooks as they were about the fact that their favorite dishes could no longer be served. The practice thus began of using captured soldiers and other hostages to formally record the recipes of whatever cook happened to be alive on any given day.

Later, during the days of Imperial Rome, wealthy Senators and merchants continued this practice and at least one slave was always assigned to the kitchen in order to watch and carefully record the methods and ingredients used in preparing various dishes. The job was not as comfortable as it might seem, for if a dish did not come out as it should it was always the scribe and never the cook who was punished. Punishment, depending on the character and momentary mood of the person who owned the scribe, varied from a few lashes with a bamboo stick to crucifixion.

Collections of recipes meant for the every day use of chefs and housewives only began to appear in the 15th century, and then primarily in Italy. The only problem with all of this was that it took another five hundred years until any two people cooking from the same recipe could actually succeed in preparing the same dish. Instructions were either so poetic or otherwise ambiguous that whatever came out of the pot was more a question of luck than a reflection of the talents of a cook and lists of ingredients were described in such vague or confusing terminology that that very few people would wind up using the same amounts of any raw materials even though they were working from the same recipe.

Steps Towards Standardization

The first major steps to standardize recipes were made by Eliza Acton and Isabella Beeton. Acton would rather have been a poet but her publisher advised her that a good sensible cookbook was what she ought to write. Her book, "Modern Cookery for Private Families" was published in 1845 and even though most of her recipes were terribly dull, she contributed greatly by making a serious effort to standardize quantities. Mrs. Beeton was a journalist, and even though she had no special talent in the kitchen, her "Book of Household Management", which appeared in 1861 went even further by including estimates of cost, quantities and preparation times for each of her recipes.

The process was completed less than a century ago when Mrs. D. A. Lincoln (a niece of President Abraham Lincoln), who had founded the Boston Cooking School, was offended by the inaccuracy of lists of ingredients that still included such traditional descriptions as "pinches of salt", "nuts of butter" and "spoon of honey" - lists that produced inconsistent results. Mrs. Lincoln approached one of the graduates of her school, Fannie Meritt Farmer, and suggested that she find a way to standardize measurements. The book that resulted, was originally known as "The Boston Cooking School Cookbook". Several years later, when Mrs. Farmer became director of the school, she changed the name of the book and it became "The Fannie Farmer Cookbook", which remained the basic text of the American kitchen until the "Joy of Cooking" took over from it in the 1960s. By whichever of its two names, the book marked the beginning of American cooks' obsession with accurate measurements.

The idea was a sound one whose major virtue was that it would allow low anyone attempting an unfamiliar recipe for the first time to be sure of achieving something that is at least reasonably presentable and edible. Despite this, standardization has still not completely caught on in Europe where many writers still cling to traditional forms such as "add a glass of sugar". Whether such writers are referring to a burgundy glass, a liqueur glass, a champagne glass or a tooth glass, whose volumes can vary by as much as 180%, is something left to each cook to decide. Some of these recipes are so vague that even the most experienced cook hesitates before trying them.

Chefs and cooks everywhere agree on only one thing - that the purpose of a recipe is to allow anyone who reads it to prepare the dish described with a minimum of confusion. Towards this end certain internationally accepted standards have evolved that are now widely accepted by those who compile and write recipes. Although there is plenty of latitude in which one can show off one's virtuosity, certain conventions are now generally adhered to, and whether chefs are simply recording their recipes for their own use or with the idea of using them one day in professional articles or in the compilation of a book, these conventions will make life considerably easier for both compilers and eventual readers.

A Few General Rules

A written recipe is a kind of permanent reference and both chefs and cookbook writers will do well to keep in mind that the primary purpose of any recipe is to aid the writer or those who later read the recipe to prepare the dish being described. Keep in mind as well that more than 50% of the people who buy cookbooks or read about cooking in newspapers and magazines do not cook. Much as a knowledgeable lover of music can enjoy reading the score of a symphony as much as actually hearing the piece performed, many food lovers gain enormous pleasure by reading recipes.

In order to make recipes both enjoyable easy to use and enjoyable to read, they should never be so long or so full of technical details that they are threatening. Nor should they threaten the reader or potential cook by using terminology that is understood only by a few top level professionals.

The precise style in which recipes are written will to some extent be determined by what the writer plans to do with it. Recipes meant for one's exclusive private use can use as many shorthand or personal quirks as the writer likes, so long as the person has written the recipe can later interpret it. Those meant to be shared with colleagues or friends should use language style, abbreviations and culinary conventions that they share in common. Those designed especially for use with students should be free of technical jargon or tricks of which students may not be aware.

Recipes meant for inclusions in one's own cookbook should go along with general conventions but may be prefaced by one's own observations on life, geography, travel, sex or whatever one likes. Keep in mind though that there should be a certain consistency throughout any book, because if this is lacking it tends to confuse readers. Confused readers neither buy books nor enjoy cooking from them if they have been given as gifts.

Nearly every newspaper, magazine and professional journal has its own style of presenting recipes. Because of this, before writing recipes to submit to such journals, the wise chef or cook will check one or more issues of the magazine in question to determine precisely what their style is. A truly brilliant recipe by a great chef will be accepted no matter how badly it is written but the magazine will always change it around to its own format. The danger for must of us is that even the most brilliant recipes by all but the greatest chefs will be rejected unless they more-or-less follow the style of the newspaper or magazine to which it is suggested. The most respected newspapers such as the New York Times, Le Monde, The Guardian and Il Stampa, like the best food related magazines such as Gourmet, Bon Apetit and La Cuccina even have "style sheets", pages describing their requirements, and they will send them to potential writers on request. Unless you are already known to the editors of these magazines, it is wise to read their style sheets before submitting your recipes.

When preparing recipes for competitions, be sure to check and see if there is an official guideline for writing recipes. If not, use the standards presented in this article and minimize highly personalized writing style. The use of anecdotes before, after or in recipes has no place in recipes submitted to competitions..

The following recipe is presented in order to demonstrate the generally accepted ways presenting both lists of ingredients and instructions. The dish that will result from the recipe is well worth considering for our own kitchens.

Turkey in Raspberry Sauce Adapted from a recipe by Chef Alice Waters

1 turkey, about 3 1/2 - 4 kilos
chestnut stuffing (see recipe immediately following)
1/2 cup butter, softened
salt and pepper to taste
2 large onions, quartered
1 1/4 cups beef stock
1/2 cup Madeira wine or port wine
1/4 cup raspberry jam
2 Tbsp. lemon juice
rind of 1/2 lemon
1 piece orange rind about 2 1/2 x 5 cm.

Prepare the chestnut stuffing.

Wash the turkey, wipe dry inside and out and fill the body cavity with the chestnut stuffing. Tie the bird, spread with half the butter and season with salt and pepper. Place the bird in a greased roasting pan.

Melt the remaining butter and into this dip a large double piece of muslin cloth and spread this over the bird. Add the onions to the pan and roast in a medium-hot oven for 30 minutes. Reduce the oven temperature to medium and roast for 1 1/2 hours longer, basting frequently with the drippings.

In a saucepan simmer together 1/4 cup of the beef stock, the wine, raspberry jam, lemon juice and the lemon and orange rinds until the jam is melted. Remove the cheesecloth from the bird, pour over the raspberry sauce and continue roasting until the bird is cooked (about 1 hour longer) basting frequently. Transfer the turkey to a serving platter and let stand at room temperature for 15 minutes before carving.

While the turkey is standing, skim off the fat from the liquids in the roasting pan, add the remaining stock and deglaze the pan by heating gently and scraping the bottom and sides well. Strain the gravy into a sauceboat and serve together with the turkey. (Serves 8 - 10).

Chestnut Stuffing
A traditional New England Recipe

1 kilo chestnuts
1/4 cup corn oil
3 cups beef stock
1/4 cup butter
1 large onion, chopped
2 1/4 cups farina
225 gr. seedless raisins
1/2 tsp. each dried thyme and dried marjoram
salt and pepper to taste

With a sharply pointed knife carefully cut slits in the flat side of the chestnuts. In a heavy skillet heat the oil and, over a high flame, cook the chestnuts for 5 - 6 minutes, shaking the skillet constantly. Cool and peel the chestnuts, removing and discarding the shells and inner skins.

Transfer the chestnuts into a saucepan with the beef stock and simmer for 20 minutes.

In a skillet heat the butter and in this saute the onion until translucent. Add the farina and brown lightly. Add the raisins and prunes, season with the thyme, marjoram and salt and pepper to taste. Crumble the chestnuts and mix into the flour mixture. Use the mixture as directed in other recipes. (Yields stuffing for one 4 - 5 kilo turkey or 3 large chickens).

THE SPECIFICS OF RECIPE WRITING

Listing Ingredients

With only one exception, ingredients should always listed in the order in which they will be used. It makes cooking and planning easier and more logical when the reader of the recipe can scan the list of ingredients in order to know what they will need at what stage of the preparation.

The exception to this rule is that the major ingredient (in the exemplar recipe above, for example) the turkey may be listed first even though it will not enter into the instructions until midway in the instructions. This is done so that those scanning recipes in order to see if the one they want to prepare will immediately be able to decide if the most important ingredient is one that is available or desirable to them.

Most steps of most recipe will require the use of more than one ingredient. Here too the rule is that ingredients should be listed in the order they are to be used. If they are to be used at the same time, however, the ingredients should be listed in order of their amounts, greater amounts always appearing first in the list.

If some of the ingredients to be used at the same time are to be used in the same amounts, they may sometimes be listed on the same line of the text. (The following example and those in the paragraphs that follow are taken from the exemplar recipe presented above).

e.g. 1/2 tsp. each dried thyme and dried marjoram

Even if a series of ingredients are to be used at the same time and in the same amounts, they should be separated if each of the ingredients requires a different description.

e.g. 225 gr. seedless raisins
225 gr. dried prunes, pitted and chopped

One of the most critically important factors in the list of in ingredients, and the one open to greatest interpretation in its use, is that which deals with quantities of various ingredients to be used in any recipe. European chefs have a passion that leads them to list nearly all ingredients by weight, American cooks are obsessed with volume measurements, but the most intelligent writers of recipes, regardless of from where they come, rely on a combi nation of the two systems. The best rule to follow is to list those ingredients most easily measured in spoonfuls, in cups or in liters in liquid measures; and those that are easiest weighed by weight. What is critical, however, is that recipes refer to weights and measures that have been standardized. In cookery, the reference to 1 cup refers not to a tea cup or a coffee cup but to a standardized measuring cup that is always the precise equivalent of 16 Tbsp., 48 tsp., 8 fluid ounces and 227 fluid grams.

Even though the rules of common sense often prove best for writing recipes, common sense varies from person to person. Although not all professional writers of recipes agree, my own preference is to list all liquids in terms of liters, cups, tablespoons or teaspoons, and to list items such as flour, sugar and butter in the same way unless they are used in large quantities when I list them by weight. I also list herbs and spices by teaspoons, tablespoons or cups because I find that it is easier to measure them in this fashion.

There is a movement towards the worldwide adaptation of the metric system, but different systems of measurements are still used in Europe, the United States and England, the nations from which we receive the vast majority of our recipes. A series of conversion charts is presented at the end of this article so that local chefs can easily adopt the recipes of any country to their own use.

If a recipe is written with the idea of international distribution, it is a good idea to refer to two different systems of measurement for each ingredient measured by volume or weight:

e.g. 1 turkey, about 3 1/2 - 4 kilos (7 1/2 - 9 lbs).
225 gr. (8 oz.) seedless raisins

Before setting down the list of ingredients or the first word of instructions on a recipe, one must decide on the audience that the recipe is aimed at. Is your audience sophisticated enough that the ingredients can list such items as 1 cup of mirepoix; 2 cups of sauce Bearnaise; or 1 cup of duxelles or will just the mere mention of such terms throw your readers into a state of panic. Such recipes, which often include other recipes in them, are referred to as "compound recipes". When writing compound recipes for a professional audience, such terms can be used, but when writing for a general audience one cannot take for granted any advanced knowledge whatever. There are three general methods in use for presenting such compound recipes.

In the first method, generally aimed at chefs or an otherwise sophisticated audience, the list of ingredients for the classic recipe for sole fillets with duxelles by Francois Pierre de La Varenne might appear as follows:

Fish Fillets a la Duxelles

1 kilo sole, plaice or other fish fillets
salt and pepper to taste
3 cups duxelles
1/2 cup tomato sauce
1 1/2 Tbsp. oil
1 1/2 Tbsp.
butter flour as required
2 Tbsp. parsley, chopped

Season the fillets with salt and pepper and then dredge lightly and in this saute the fillets until done. lemon wedges for serving

In a mixing bowl combine the duxelles with half the tomato sauce and mix gently but well. If the mixture seems dry, add more tomato sauce, just until the mixture is moist but not runny. Distribute the duxelles on a preheated serving platter and on this arrange the fish. Sprinkle over the parsley and pour over the oil and butter that remains in the skillet in which the fish was fried. Serve with the lemon wedges. (Serves 4 - 6).

Knowing that they are writing for an audience composed entirely of professionals, some compilers of recipes would present the above recipe with no quantities at all, leaving such decisions to individual chefs. Such writers are in a minority today. Personally, this is not a system of which I approve.

If one's target audience is not overly sophisticated, (and thus not necessarily expected to know what "duxelles" are), two options are open. In the first, the recipe for duxelles can be "built into" the recipe itself. In the second, more accepted method, the recipe for duxelles can appear separately. In a journal or newspaper article, the secondary recipe should appear immediately after the main recipe, but in a book or collection of recipes it would most logically appear in a reference section. In the sample recipe for Turkey with Raspberry Sauce given above, the recipe for the filling is referred to in the main recipe and, as indicated, appears immediately afterwards. The same thing could be done with a recipe for duxelles:

Duxelles

Note: This is a recipe so versatile that it is regularly used in the preparation of hors d'oeuvres, soups, vegetables or garnishes. It may also be used in stuffing fish, poultry and meats as well as in making sauces and stocks.

125 gr. mushrooms (including the stems), chopped finely
2 Tbsp. clarified butter
1/2 onion, chopped finely
2 shallots or the white parts of 4 spring onions, chopped
salt and pepper to taste

Place the chopped mushrooms in a clean cloth, fold over and squeeze out as much of the liquids as possible.

In a skillet melt the butter and in this saute the onion until lightly browned. Add the mushrooms and shallots and stirring often over a high flame, continue to saute until the mushrooms are cooked (5 - 6 minutes). Season to taste with salt and pepper. May be used immediately or may be stored for 2 - 3 weeks if placed in a tightly closed jar and refrigerated. Use as instructed in specific recipes or in recipes of your own devise. (Yields about 1 1/2 cups of duxelles).

Although it is not required, some recipe writers supply their readers with a list of the cooking utensils that will be required in the preparation of each recipe. If such lists are supplied, they should appear in a separate box, generally located alongside the list of ingredients.

Instructions for Preparation of the Dish

Those who write recipes should never forget that the recipe instructions are not meant to impress readers. What will impress is the quality of the dish that is prepared. The purpose of the instructions is entirely to help readers in the preparation of the dish being described and while intelligent compilers of recipes have plenty of leeway for personal style, the instructions themselves should always be clear and easily readable.

Here, as in the compilation of the list of ingredients, the terminology used should always be in tune with the level of sophistication of one's target audience. It is generally reasonable, for example, to assume in writing individual recipes that your readers will know (or have available a reference book that will tell them) how to carry out such processes as sauteeing and stir-frying, and that they will know the difference between such processes as steaming, boiling, grilling and roasting. It is not always reasonable to assume, however, that all readers will be familiar with such processes as par-boiling or blanching. Terminology that is not widely known should be explained:

e.g. Blanch the vegetables by plunging them into a large quantity of rapidly boiling water for 30 - 45 seconds and then draining them rapidly and running them under cold running water.

Whether one numbers each step of the cooking instructions is much a question of personal choice. Some find that numbered steps allow readers to refer easily to other parts of recipes.

e.g. Place the vegetables prepared in Step 1 of the recipe in a well-greased baking pan.

Recipes should clearly state that oven temperatures always refer to ovens that have been preheated (that is to say, have attained their temperature before the ingredients are placed in the oven).

There are two methods for giving oven temperatures. In the first, which assumes a certain amount of knowledge on the part of the reader, one refers to oven temperature as "low, slow, medium, medium-hot, hot or very hot" and so on. In the second, reference is made to "an oven that has been preheated to 180 degrees Celsius." In such cases, because many stoves and ovens have been imported from North America, it is wise to also include the Fahrenheit equivalent:

e.g. place the food in an oven that has been preheated to 180 degrees Celsius (350 Fahrenheit).

Where appropriate (especially in giving oven times), well written recipes will always give the approximate cooking times.

e.g. Place in a medium-hot oven until the bird is nearly done (about 45 minutes).

A recipe that does not inform the reader how many portions he is preparing is a useless recipe.

e.g. Serves 4.
e.g. Serves 4 - 6.
e.g. Serves 6 - 8 as an appetizer or 4 - 6 as a main course.

Warning: Whenever you write a recipe that calls for the flaming of brandy or any other liqueur, be absolutely certain to include a warning that this should be done carefully. (...and then carefully flame the brandy). If you do not do this and someone burns themselves while following your instructions he has the right to sue you for negligence. Although the practice of suing has not yet become popular in Europe, it is considered a major sport in the United States and in 1992, Mrs. Lois Wittgenstein was awarded $350,000 in damages for burning her eyebrows after following a recipe in the "New York Times Magazine".

Testing Recipes

One of the easiest ways to lose the respect of your readers is to have them prepare one or more of your recipes only to find out that "they just don't work". All recipes, regardless of whether they are original or adaptations, should be tested before they are printed. This is especially true of recipes that have been adopted from other sources because both the amounts of ingredients used and the cooking times can vary from country to country. American eggs, for example, are larger than Israeli eggs and Israeli flour reacts very differently in the oven than French, American or English flour.

Morality and Recipe Writing?

A great many of the people who write cookbooks seem to have been so impressed with the joke about the old Polish recipe for chicken stew that starts: "First you steal a chicken..." that they assume that the first direction for writing a cookbook is to steal a lot of recipes. My own advice to such writers is to be very careful, for in addition to being illegal, it is also pretentious and vulgar to claim credit for recipes that are not our own. Although there is a good chance that most plagiarists will never be sued, stealing recipes is a sin that many of our colleagues will justifiably) never forgive. Keep in mind that giving credit to an original source is not an embarassment. It is, in fact a reflection of our sophistication.

Where the original source of a recipe is known, credit should be given directly.

e.g. A recipe by Richard Olney.
e.g. This recipe first appeared in "Gourmet Magazine" in March, 1982.

Even in presenting a recipe that is considered standard, it is in good taste to give credit:

e.g. A traditional recipe from the area of Provence
e.g. A traditional Serbian recipe.

Even in cases where writers are convinced that they have made "improvements", "advances", or "extensions" of existing recipes, credit should be given.

e.g. Based on a recipe originally presented by Richard Olney.

Those tempted to steal recipes and claim them as their own may be pleased to learn that they cannot be sued for plagiarism. They may not be so happy to realize, however, that they can be sued for infringement of copyright. The classic case in such affairs occured in 1984 when Richard Olney sued Richard Nelson for $50,000 for infringement of copyright and $1 million in punitive damages. A study of Nelson's book revealed that he had "lifted" 39 of Olney's recipes and claimed them as his own.

The case against Nelson was not difficult to prove. Olney has a very individual style. In his recipe for onion pudding, for example, Olney's instructions called for you to "bake the onions until swelled up and well browned", and Nelson's recipe asked us to "bake the onions until puffed up and well browned". In another recipe, for creamed broad beans and bacon, Olney wrote "turn the flame high for a few seconds to launch the cooking ... cook the bacon gently in butter until limp but not crisp, add the sprouts and season and toss over a medium-high flame for a minute". Nelson instructed us to "cook the bacon lightly in butter until limp but not crisp. Add the sprouts, season and toss over a medium heat for a minute".

This was not the end of Nelson's sinning, and Robert Schoffner, the food and wine editor of "Washington Magazine" found 75 other recipes that had been purloined: 40 from Francesco Ghedini's "North Italian Cooking", 8 from three books by James Beard; 5 from a book by Craig Claiborne; and 21 from other sources.

Those who do decide to steal recipes should be especially careful when lifting recipes from people like Olney, Elizabeth David and others whose personality is clearly stamped on each of their recipes or from Claudia Roden and others who often publish recipes that have never appeared in print before. True professionals have little respect for those who steal recipes, paste them onto blank pages, change a word here and there and claim them as their own*

* The notes on plagiarism in this article are based largely on a chapter in "The Official Foodie Handbook" by Anne Barr and Paul Levy, who write that their own report on plagiarism "was largely plagarised from the work of various excellent journalists" of whom they then list more than fifteen.

Even though there a certain amount of conformity is required in any recipe that is to be readable, many recipe writers have a unique style that marks their recipes as their own. Cookbook writer Elizabeth David, for example, loves to tell anecdotes in her books but her recipes themselves rely on a minimalistic style that some have called "culinary shorthand". Despite this, her recipes are fun to read and easy to prepare.

Pommes de Terre Framagees
A recipe by Elizabeth David

Fill a small shallow baking dish with new potatoes, boiled but kept rather undercooked. Pour melted butter over them, then cover them lightly with a mixture of breadcrumbs and grated Gruyere cheese. Cook in a moderate oven, turning the potatoes round from time to time until they are lightly browned.

Another cookbook writer, Apicius, who wrote during the days of ancient Rome also used a kind of shorthand. Alas, although his shorter recipes are possible to understand, those that are longer are all but impossible to prepare.

Fried Red Mullet
Patina ex Piscibus Mullis
A recipe from Apicius

A dish of mullet consists of 2 scaled salted red mullets placed in a clean pan with enough oil as is necessary for cooking; when done add a dash of honey, wine or raisin wine, sprinkle with pepper and serve.

The Larousse Gastronomique, the bible of many chefs and cooks, also uses a unique style in that they assume that readers will flip from page to page seeking the cross-references to which they refer. The following is a relatively simple recipe from Larousse but nonetheless requires the reader to check and incorporate no less than four other recipes.

Partridge a la Souvarof
From the Larousse Gastronomique

Clean the partridge as instructed (a), and stuff it with foie gras and truffles cut in large dice, seasoned with salt and pepper and sprinkled with a dash of brandy. Truss as for an entree (b). Brown quickly in butter, to stiffen it. Put into an oval-shaped earthenware cocotte. Surround with 3 truffles cut in large pieces, or whole truffles, peeled and seasoned.

Moisten with 1 dl. (6 Tbsp., scant 1/2 cup) Maderia-flavored game fumet (c) to which the pan juices, diluted with Madeira, have been added. Sprinkle with a dash of brandy.

Cover the cocotte with its lid and seal with flour-and-water paste (d). Cook the partridge in a hot oven for 40 minutes. Serve in the cocotte.

Richard Olney's recipes incorporate his personal philosophy of life, observations on nature and an abundance of hints for general cooking.

Honey Ice Cream
A recipe by Richard Olney

500 ml. milk
5 eggs
2 heaped Tbsp. honey, or to taste
small pinch of salt
250 ml.(8 fl. oz.) sweet cream Raspberry Sauce for serving (see recipe following)

I use lavender honey made by bees which have fed on flowers from the lavender fields of the Alpine foothills. In autumn, when it is fresh it is thick but liquid; as the year progresses, it solidifies. Use liquid honey, if possible. If your honey has crystallized, scoop it into a bowl and immerse it in hot water for a few minutes before trying to incorporate the other ingredients.

Bring the milk to the boil. Whisk together the eggs, honey and salt and slowly pour in the milk, whisking the while. Stir in the cream with the whisk and leave to cool. Pour the cooled mix- ture through a strainer into another bowl and then into the ice cream maker, following instructions that accompany your maker.

Serve with a sauceboat of Raspberry sauce on the side. (Serves 4).

Raspberry Sauce

225 gr. (8 oz) fresh or frozen raspberries extra fine sugar

Pass the raspberries through a nylon or stainless steel sieve with a wooden pestle. Stir in sugar to taste.

The great Escoffier was also an individualist and from his lists of ingredients to his instructions, he invariably assumed that his readers had a fairly wide knowledge of cookery. Despite the many "faults" in his writing style, no one has ever complained about any of the dishes they have prepared from his recipes.

Tournedos with Brandy and White Wine?
A recipe by George Auguste Escoffier

salt, pepper, 4 tournedos, butter, brandy, white wine, shallots, 12 mushrooms, 6 Tbsp. demi-glace sauce with tomato, 1 Tbsp. meat jelly, pinch chopped parsley

Season and saute the tournedos in butter and arrange on a round dish. Add a little brandy and white wine to the pan in which the tournedos were cooked and mix well with remaining butter and sediment. Add minced shallot and the mushrooms sliced and sauteed in butter. Add the demi-glace sauce, meat jely and parsley. Boil for a few seconds and pour over the tournedos. (Serves 4).

Note: To find a set of conversion tables (inches to centimeters, tablespoons to cups, pounds to kilograms, etc), click here.

© Daniel Rogov