From the time of the Minoans, one of the most lasting symbols of the Mediterranean has been the olive tree. From antiquity, the source of the wealth of many regional peoples, these delectable fruits are frequently mentioned in the Bible, the New Testament and the Koran, and at least since the time of Julius Caesar, one of the most universal emblems of peace has been that of the olive branch. For nearly 5,000 years olives have been eaten as a Mediterranean staple and olive oil has been used for cooking, lighting, treating wounds, and anointing the body during religious ceremonies.

Probably native to southwestern Asia and first cultivated in the Middle East and Mediterranean basin during the Neolithic Age, the olive has always been surrounded by a special aura of mythology. Jews and Moslems believe that Noah's ark brought back an olive branch from Mount Ararat. Greek mythology has it the gods held a contest to see which of them could produce the gift that would be most valuable to mortals. Athena, won the contest by striking the ground with a stone and bringing forth the olive tree.

Because olives grew so easily in the rocky, sandy lands of the Mediterranean basin, olive oil became to the region what butter is to northern Europe today. In ancient Israel, where nearly every kitchen was equipped with a small press for extracting oil, the olive provided food and lamp fuel as well as cooking oil. Even the hard wood of the olive trees was valued and often used in construction. By the time of the Roman conquest, the olive had become one of the most basic dietary items, and the meals of the poor consisted primarily of olives, beans, figs and cheese eaten with a porridge made from millet.

The olive has never fallen out of favor as a regional staple and in Israel, Greece, Turkey, Palestine, Jordan and Syria literally millions of acres are currently cultivated with olives. While modern farmers prune their trees on a regular basis to encourage limited but controlled growth, others, using more ancient methods, do not prune their trees and this allows them the freedom to grow to their maximum height, sometimes exceeding eight meters. Because of this undisciplined growth, many of these trees take on strange and structurally wondrous shapes as do many of the more mature trees even if they have been pruned. The older trees frequently burst open, leaving what appear to be thin shells supporting huge living creatures. Sometimes the new, unpruned shoots of the root system grow up through the parent tree and an entire cluster of trees seems to grow from one body. The result may be structurally pandemonious, but it is also aesthetically glorious.

After the harvest, some of the olives make their way directly to market. Others are converted into oil. And here is where the confusion starts for most of the people who rely on olive oil for cooking and for use in salads in their homes. First of all, some producers are unscrupulous enough that what they label olive oil contains not even a drop of the juice of the olive. Others mix olive oil with corn oil, cotton oil or other less expensive oils and sell it as olive oil. The problem comes about because not enough people have learned how to recognize the differences between real olive oil and other oils.

Another problem is in the overall quality of the oil we purchase. Until a very few years ago, finding a bottle of olive oil that had been made by cold pressing was a cause for celebration. Even though olive oil has been since Biblical times, most consumers remained so naive that they assumed this single factor automatically guaranteed the quality of the oil they were about to purchase. To the dismay of many,even though they had purchased genuine cold pressed olive oil, much of what they bought was bitter and harsh and left a distinctly greasy feeling in the mouth.

The simple truth of the matter is that although the best olive oils come from the process of cold pressing (that is to say, in which olives are pressed without the use of hot water or other tricks to make their oil flow more easily), this is only one of many factors that are involved in the making of high quality oil. Many truly fine olive oils are now available and the very best of these fall into three broad categories. Although the very best oils are called "Extra Virgin" , those called Virgin and Pure are also good.

Extra Virgin Oil is made from the first pressing of specially selected olives that must be picked by hand and the oil must have contain less than 1% of oleic acid. The acid in Virgin Oil must not exceed 2%, and that in Pure Oil cannot be more than 3.%. Oil with more than 4 - 5% of oleic acid is generally considered not fit for human consumption.

Many factors contribute to the total amount of acid in oil. Two of the most important of these relate to the time at which the olives were picked and how long they had to wait after picking to be pressed. Olives that are going to be used for making oil, like grapes destined to be made into wine, should be picked at their peak of ripeness. After picking they should be pressed as quickly as possible, for the longer they stand the greater the amount of acid that begins to accumulate.

Tasting and Evaluating Olive Oil

Olive oil has a language of its own and this language is similar to that used in discussing wine. This is not surprising because olives grow in many of the same regions as grapes and factors such as soil, climate and cultivation that affect the quality and flavor are the same for olives and grapes. As wines come from different varietals of grapes (e.g. Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Chardonnay), so do olives (e.g. Barnea, Syrian, Manzolino). As wines can be fruity, astringent, sweet, harmonious, rich, and smooth, so can olive oils. And, as wine has body, depth and liveliness, so does olive oil. There are, of course, differences between the languages. Although color is often an accurate indicator as of the quality of wine, it rarely says anything about the quality of olive oil. Fine oil may range in color from deep green to light gold and may be perfectly clear or somewhat cloudy. Another difference is that unlike some of the best wines which age well over many years, olive oil should be consumed young, because it never ages gracefully.

Because olive oils vary as much in flavor and aroma as they do in quality, all cooks should develop the ability to select their oils according to the factors they consider most desirable. Tasting and evaluating of olive oil is not difficult. As in tasting wine, the oil tasting experience should consider the aroma, the initial impression the oil makes on the palate, the impressions as one swallows and the taste that lingers in the mouth after the oil has been swallowed. Be especially careful when evaluating oils to discount the shape or attractiveness of the bottle. Producers do not invest large sums of money in fancy or expensive bottles for nothing.

Tasting Olive Oil

As with wine, the sense smell is extremely important in evaluating olive oil. Fine olive oils, like fine wine, can have a complex aroma. Unlike wine, however, all of the aroma should come from the fruit itself and not from any fermentation process, and this means that freshness of aroma is the most crucial factor to look for. After checking for freshness, examine the aroma of oil to see if it calls to mind any fruits, vegetables, nuts or verdant aromas.

In order to set up a tasting for yourself or a group of friends, select between four and six oils (more than that confuses the palates of all but the most experienced professional tasters). Decant each of the oils into small containers, ideally dark blue containers, to remove any bottle appeal and to reduce the perceived differences in colors. Each taster should have a separate small plastic cup with a sample of each oil, and tasters should be supplied with as many teaspoons as there are oils to be tasted.

On the table should also be cold water, cubes of white bread and apples so that tasters can clear their palates after sampling each oil. (Do not supply cheeses or meats, as these tend to coat the palate and hide the flavor of the oils being tasted). Be sure to supply napkins for cleaning fingers or teaspoons.

Each taster should start by sniffing the oil, noting the intensity of the aroma and assessing the fruitiness of the fresh olive. Other aromas should then be sorted and noted. The next step is to taste the oil. Most professional tasters find that a single teaspoonful is enough. The oil should be rolled over the tongue and around the mouth so that all of the taste receptors on the tongue have an opportunity to react to the oil. Some people find it problematic to take a teaspoon full off oil, and it is acceptable to dip a small cube of bread into the oil and taste it this way.

Since different tastes are not all perceived simultaneously, it is important to consider the bite or flavor of the oil when it first hits the mouth, the flavor when swallowed and the aftertaste in the mouth. The overall evaluation will depend on the balance of the three.

Keep in mind during tastings that personal preference and budget play a large role in the determination of what oils we will eventually buy. Some people prefer light sweet oils; others prefer peppery, heavy oils; and yet others choose two or even three different styles of oil to use for different purposes.

What Oils To Buy and When To Use Them

The knowledge of whether an oil is categorized as Extra Virgin, Virgin or Pure is important but is not enough to fully describe the qualities of any given oil. Because olive oils vary as much as in flavor and aroma as they do in quality, all cooks should develop the ability to select their oils according to the factors they consider most desirable. The simple truth is that Extra Virgin oil is always better, but because it is always more expensive, it may not always be in line with our budgets.

When buying oil, keep in mind that there are no firm rules about which oil to use with particular foods or in specific dishes, but one should keep in mind each oil will bring out different aspects of the food and every oil can change the overall style of a dish. A salad dressed with a light, sweet oil will, for example, taste quite different than one that is dressed with a peppery one and, while it may add charm to a heavy roast beef to brown it in a heavy oil, the same oil will overwhelm the flavor of a delicate veal steak.

Even though olive oil is now in general use throughout the world, many, such as the English, continue to use it primarily to make salad sauces and rarely cook with it. In England, as in most of the northern European countries, cooks prefer very mildly flavored and not at all aromatic olive oil, but, as one moves south, the preference for stronger, more highly flavored oils increases. The cuisines best suited to the use of olive oil in cooking are those of the nations of the Mediterranean basin, and that of California. In fact, the cookery of Italy, southern France, Greece, Turkey, and the entire Middle-East would fade into pale oblivion were it not for the heavy reliance on olive oil.

Different chefs have different preferences for the oils they will use in preparing different dishes. Chef Anton Mosimann, for example writes that "with light dishes, such as delicately flavored fish or fish fillets, small cuts of beef or veal, and vegetables, I prefer to use a light, barely scented oil, but with salads, large firm-fleshed fish, most seafood, and pork, I like a heavy, deeply scented oil". Italian chef, Giuliano Bugialli writes that "ideally it is best to use oil from a particular region for dishes of that area, but because this is not always possible keep in mind that Northern Italian dishes generally use light but rich oil; and Southern Italian cookery relies on oil that is heavier and more aromatic".

Chef Jacques Maximin, who relies heavily on olive oil in his kitchen, insists on using "a very deep, rich, full flavored, deep greenish extra-virgin olive for cooking" but demands "a lighter green, less highly flavored oil for salads". Alain Senderens, whose cuisine also relies heavily on olive oil in his cookery, says that he "always has at least three different oils on hand- one deep, heavily flavored and aromatic; another lighter, with a mild flavor and just the hint of a bouquet; and a third, that is so light that it almost has wings". All major chefs agree that one will do well to avoid the over-refined supermarket oils, and that any chef, professional or at-home, will do well to find a reliable source of oil before starting to prepare their favorite dishes.

My own suggestion is to try the various oils available and determine which are most suited to your tastes. After that, I recommend that all kitchens be equipped with two or three oils, ranging according to Senderens' scale, from heavy to light, from richly aromatic to barely scented, and then to follow the general rules of these well known chefs.


Terms Used to Describe The Basic Style of an Oil

Aggressive: Oils which have strong, immediately felt flavors.

Aromatic: Oils that have an interesting and complex aroma.

Astringent: Astringency is the pulling, puckering sensation one feels when the gums tongue and palate can no longer slide against each other comfortably, as if they had insufficient saliva. In olive oil, as in wine, this is often due to the presence of naturally occurring chemicals, such as tannin. High acidity also has this same effect. A certain amount of astringency is considered charming. Too much causes discomfort.

Bite: A term used to describe the presence or lack of an initial flavor impact.

Bitter: Oils obtained from green olives or olives turning color have a characteristically bitter taste. This bitterness can be more or less pleasant depending on its intensity.

Cucumber: A flavor produced when an oil is packed for too long, especially in tin containers. Always a negative term.

Delicate: Used to describe oils that have light aromatic flavors.

Fatty: A negative term used to describe oils that leave a greasy feeling in the mouth.

Flat: A negative term used to describe an oil that is weak in taste and aroma.

Fruity: Flavor that is reminiscent of both the odor and taste of healthy fresh fruit picked at its optimum stage of ripeness.

Green: A term often used in place of bitter.

Harsh: A negative term describing oils that produce too much of a feeling of astringency in the mouth.

Intense or Strong: Refers to the depth of aroma or flavor.

Light or Mild: The opposite of intense.

Hot or peppery: A peppery feeling at the back of the throat. Can be pleasant or unpleasant depending on the balance of the other flavors in the oil.

Mellow: Oils that are soft and sweet.

Old: A negative term used to describe oil that has been kept for too long in jars or tins.

Pungent: A powerful flavor, leading towards bitterness but without being unpleasant.

Rancid: An unpleasant taste that occurs in oils that have been exposed too long to air.

Rich: Oils that have a full rounded flavor.

Round: Oils that are well balanced.

Rustic: Oils that have hearty aromas and flavors.

Smooth: Oils with very light aromas and flavors.

Sweet: A pleasant taste, not exactly sugary, but found in oil in which bitter, astringent or pungent attributes do not dominate.


Flavors That Are Always Signs of Problematic Oil

Brine: A salty taste that one finds in oils extracted from olives that were preserved in a saline solution.

Earth: A characteristic taste from olives that had mud or earth on them and were not washed before being pressed.

Fusty: The flavor of olives that have undergone an advanced stage of fermentation.

Greasy: The odors or flavors of petroleum, grease or mineral oil that come from pressing machinery that was not properly cleaned.

Green Leaves: The flavor obtained from much too young olives or from olives that were crushed together with leaves and twigs.

Grubby: A wormy taste that comes from olives that were heavily infested with the grubs of the olive fly.

Burned: A flavor that comes from pressing olives that were overheated before being pressed.

Metallic: Oils that have been in contact for too long or under unsuitable conditions with metallic surfaces during crushing, mixing, storage or pressing.

Muddy: A flavor that is found in oils that are scraped from the bottoms and sides of vats and storage tanks.

Soapy: A flavor produced by contact with greasy or otherwise dirty surfaces during the pressing process.

Winey or Vinegary: Some fermented olive oils produce flavors that remind one of wine and vinegar.

To find three very special recipes that make excellent use of olive oil, click here.

© Daniel Rogov