Spices have played such an important role in world history that the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt declared them to be sacred; several Roman Emperors ordered specially designed ships to be built to sail to Asia and the eastern coast of Africa to attain them; and Spanish armadas conquered more than half of the New World and a goodly part of Asia in order to guarantee their kings and queens as large a stockpile of spices as they wanted.

The Pharaohs valued spices mostly for their use in making the incense known as kuphi - literally "holy smoke" - with which they worshipped their gods; the Romans used them primarily to hide the flavor and smell of rancid meat and spoiled fish; and the Spanish, who considered them more valuable than gold, hid supplies away in royal warehouses, well guarded from the common people who might want to do anything so foolish as to cook with them.

There is nothing difficult about cooking with spices so long as one maintains three basic guidelines. First, unlike herbs which come mostly from the leaves and stems of soft stemmed aromatic plants and are almost always best when used fresh, spices may come from the roots, bark, flower buds, fruits or seeds of aromatic plants and are invariably best when dried. Second, spices should be used in quantities just sufficient enough to enhance the subtlety of a dish and not drown the inherent flavors of the foods being pre- pared. Finally, when preparing long cooking dishes such as stews and soups, remember that because ground spices give out their flavor quickly, they should be added only 20 - 30 minutes before the end of cooking. Following, as a guide to the still perplexed, is a list of the spices in most frequent use in modern kitchens:

Allspice, which is also called Jamaica pimento and English pepper is the fruit of a tree that, although it will grow anywhere in the world yields fruit only in the Caribbean and Central America. The name comes from the flavor and aroma of the fruits which resemble a combination of cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg. Whole allspice berries should be used for boiling fish, in stews, meat marinades, spiced fruits, chutneys and pickles. Ground allspice is ideal for soups, vegetable dishes, in fruit cakes, relishes, chutneys and in baked fruits such as bananas, figs and pineapple.

Anise comes from the seeds of an annual plant native to the Mediterranean basin. Aniseed, which is the fruit of the same plant is tiny, brown and oval. Whole anise seeds should be used in fish chowders, meat stews, vegetables (red and green cabbage, carrots, turnips, beet, cauliflower) and can be scattered over rolls and bread. Ground anise is excellent in soups, fish dishes, marinades and cakes. Aniseed, which gives the flavor to ouzo, arak and Pernod is useful in any dish in which the distinct flavor of liquorice is wanted.

Capiscum is the Latin word for "pepper" and includes all peppers from the mildest to the hottest, from bright red to deep green. The hottest hot peppers are not, as most people think, chilies, but cayenne pepper. Paprika, which is also in the same family is not nearly as hot. Each of these is described separately below.

Caraway seeds, which have a liquorice flavor, come from plants that grow in Holland, Germany and other parts of Northern Europe. The German name for caraway is kummel and it is from these seeds that the liquor of that name is made. Use whole seeds in dumplings for soups and stews, in meat stews, with liver, for goulash and with vegetables (cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, potatoes), in rye and other breads, biscuits and cookies, cheese, pickles. Use ground in stews, with vegetables (squash, beans, tomatoes, potato salad and chicory).

Cardamom (sometimes spelled "cardamon") is native to India but is now grown as well in Sri Lanka and Guatemala. This is an expensive spice because each seed pod must be snipped off the plant by hand. The pods are then dried and bleached until they are buff-colored. Inside the pods are small black seeds which have a warm, slightly pungent and highly aromatic flavor and taste. Favorites in Middle-Eastern cookery (in Arabic and in everyday modern Hebrew the spice is known as hehl). Use whole seed pods in rice dishes, pickles, spiced wine, punches, and coffee. Use ground in curries, meat loaves, kebabs, hamburgers, baked apples, apple pie, pumpkin pie, sprinkled over melon, in spiced fruit salads and in Danish pastries.

Cayenne is the very hottest member of the pepper family. Use in curries, shellfish and fish dishes, egg dishes, devilled meat (especially chicken, turkey, kidneys, sausages), in hot sauces and in cheese dishes.

Chili. People will probably argue for another thousand years about whether to spell this word with one "l" or two, but what is important is that ground chili powder is of special use in Mexican dishes, cocktail sauces, minced meat dishes. Depending on which brand you buy and how much you use in your cooking, chili is for all practical purposes exchangeable with cayenne.

Cinnamon comes from the bark of an evergreen tree that is a member of the laurel family and native of the Far East. The bark is peeled, dried and curled into sticks (sometimes known as quills or pipes), and is also sold in powdered form. Use cinnamon sticks for cooking apples, prunes, oranges; spiced fruits to be served with poultry and meat; rice dishes, pickling vinegar, and to make hot wine punches. Use ground in spiced hot grapefruit, meat dishes, vegetable dishes, stewed fruits (apples, bananas, oranges, prunes), fruit pies, pumpkin pie and for sprinkling over milk and custard puddings; and for cinnamon toast.

Cloves are the dried unopened flower buds of an evergreen trees that originally grew on the Moluccas or Spice Islands but are now also found in Indonesia, and the West Indian Islands. Whole cloves are stuck into an onion for making soups and sauces, in boiling beef, for baked ham, spiced tongue, beet salad, pickled vegetables, baked and stewed fruits and apple sauce. Ground cloves are ideal for meat stews, curries, vegetables (beets, sweet potatoes, chicory), in fruit pies and pumpkin pies, spiced fruits, cakes and cookies.

Coriander which is known in Arabic and everyday Hebrew as cusbara is an herb but the seeds of the shrub are used as a spice. Especially popular in the cookery of the Mediterranean basin and Arabic world, whole seeds are used in pickled fish, curries and pickled vegetables. The ground seeds are used in soups, fish dishes, meat stews, curries, chicken dishes, sausage dishes, stuffings, lentil dishes, puddings and custards, cakes and Middle Eastern sweets.

Cumin, comes from a small plant which, although native to the Nile Valley is now cultivated all over the world. Cumin seeds look like anise, dill or caraway seeds and are used in curries and chili powder, meat stews, Mexican dishes and chutney. The Dutch and Swiss use cumin seeds in cheeses and in Alsace and Germany they are indispensable to sauerkraut dishes. Ground cumin is used in soups, fish dishes, meat loaves, curries, Mexican and Turkish dishes, stuffed vegetables (eggplant, peppers, tomatoes), dried bean dishes, sauces.

Curry Powder is a combination of spices. In India every person varies the number and quantity of spices they used. Commercial curry powder contains 12 - 14 different spices and the heat of each varies from relatively mild to extremely hot, according to the amount of ground chilies used.

Fenugreek is a little known spice but is indispensable in Indian, Egyptian, Moroccan and Lebanese cuisine. The ground seeds are used in vegetable and bean soups, curries, meat stews, pickles and chutneys.

Garam Masala is an Indian mixture of ground spices similar to but with less heat than most curry powders.

Ginger was probably the first Oriental spice to make its way westward. The underground stem or rhizome of a plant native to India and China, but now grown in many places, this is the single most important form of flavoring in Chinese cuisine and is sold fresh, preserved, pickled, sugared, dried, grated, shaved and ground. Use fresh in Chinese fish and meat dishes, vegetables (onions and artichokes), dried beans, in curries and stews. Use ground over melon and grapefruit, in soups, fish dishes, chicken dishes, meat stews, sweet sauces, fruit pies, pumpkin pie, stewed fruits, gingerbread cakes, cookies and chutnies.

Juniper berries come from a small evergreen tree native to Europe, the Arctic and North Africa. The berries are picked and dried and should be crushed with the back of a spoon and used with care because they have such a strong flavor. In addition to providing the flavor of gin, the whole berries are good with strong rich foods such as game and in sauerkraut based dishes. Crushed use in pates, with game birds, in stuffings for poultry.

Mace - See Nutmeg

Mustard seeds can be either black or brown, white or yellow and neither the seeds nor their crushed powder have any scent until liquid is added. Crushed mustard can be mixed into a paste with water, white wine or vinegar. Whole seeds used in boiled beets, cabbage, sauerkraut, pickling, chutneys. Powder is used in fish dishes, poultry dishes, meat dishes, devilled dishes, sauces, egg dishes, cheese dishes, mayonnaise, salad sauces.

Nutmeg and Mace both come from the fruit of the nutmeg tree. Mace comes from the outer husk of the fruit which is peeled and left in blades, preserved in syrup or ground, and nutmeg is the ground dried fruit itself. Mace, which is stronger than nutmeg is used in soups, rice dishes, sauce, fish and shellfish dishes, veal stews, sauces, cakes, cookies and in making hot punches. Grated nutmeg is used in fish dishes, sauces, pickling, in hot punches, veal stews, cakes and cookies.

Paprika is a member of the Capiscum family and is generally fairly mild. Some paprika mixtures also contain cayenne or chili peppers which make them hotter. Indispensable in Hungarian cooking and in soups, fish dishes, veal, lamb, sausage dishes, goulash, beef dishes, Spanish dishes, with pasta in sauces, with cheese dishes and as a garnish for eye appeal over cheese, eggs, potatoes, cauliflower and other pale colored dishes.

Pepper grows on vines that thrive only within 10 degrees of the equator. The peppercorns grow in clusters like grapes, and as they ripen they turn from green to yellow to red. Those destined for sale as black pepper are picked when still slightly underripe and, as they dry the outer hull turns to black. White pepper is the fully ripe berry that has been soaked after pickling to remove the outer hull which is rubbed off. White pepper always has a milder flavor than black.

Whole peppercorns are used in marinades for fish and meat, in boiled beef, boiled mutton and in pickling. Ground pepper (and pepper is always best when freshly ground) is used with all savory dishes. Use white pepper for pale colored foods to avoid unsightly dark specks.

Poppy seeds come from the opium poppy but the seeds are not narcotic because they do not form until the plant has fully ripened and has lost its opium content. Whole seeds are scattered over bread, mixed with pasta, used with pastries and cakes. Crushed seeds are mixed with sugar and honey as a filling for cakes and pastries.

Saffron comes from the stigmas of the autumn crocus. If you have ever wondered why this spice is so expensive (a kilo of the finest saffron costs nearly $6000), it is because each crocus has only three stigmas, each of which must be picked by hand and it takes over 500,000 stigmas to make a kilo of spice. Fortunately, a little saffron goes a long way, so no one need go bankrupt in purchasing a small container. Saffron strands are used in making bouillabaisse and other fish soups, paella and other Spanish dishes, in fish and shellfish dishes, rice dishes, chicken dishes, sauces, breads and cakes.

Sesame comes in large pods that contain tiny white seeds which are valued not only as a spice but for their high protein and oil content. Without sesame, tchina, humous and many other Middle Eastern dishes simply could not exist. Use the seeds untoasted over breads, rolls, cookies and biscuits. Use toasted (simply place in a medium oven until pale brown) on vegetable dishes, over salads, with cream cheese, tchina, humous and in pastries.

Turmeric is a rhizome member of the ginger family. Dried and ground the spices is bright orange in color and can be used in- stead of saffron. Essential to curry powder, ground turmeric is also used in fish and shellfish dishes, curries, stews, rice dishes, vegetable dishes, sauces, pickles and chutneys.

Vanilla comes from pale yellow orchids that grow in tropical climates. When harvested vanilla beans are green, odorless and flavorless. It takes six months of curing, fermenting and drying to produce the dark brown, nearly black color and characteristic fragrance. The distilled oil of the bean is known either as vanillan or vanilla extract. (Be sure when buying extract not to buy a synthetic product).

Whole beans, which are used to infuse flavor into many dishes can be rinsed, dried and used many times before their flavor recedes. To make vanilla sugar, fill a small jar with bottle and push in one or two beans. Leave the bottle tightly closed for several days to infuse the sugar with the vanilla flavor. Vanilla extract is used in chocolate and coffee sweets, puddings, cakes, biscuits and cookies, with fruits, in ice cream, custards and puddings, sweet sauces, hot chocolate drinks, and candies.

Following are several recipes that demonstrate how important the of spices is in various national cuisines.

Ceylon Beef Curry

675 gr. stewing beef, with all gristle removed
150 gr. desiccated coconut (tinned)
2 1/2 cups finely chopped onions
3 Tbsp. vegetable oil
225 gr. tomatoes, peeled and chopped
3 - 4 cloves garlic, chopped finely
1/2 tsp. ground coriander
1 1/2 tsp. ground cumin
1 tsp. ground cardamom
1 tsp. ground turmeric
1/2 tsp. chili powder (or more to taste)
1 1/2 tsp. salt
juice of 1/2 small lemon

Place the coconut in a bowl and pour over 2/3 cup of boiling water. Let cool and then squeeze out as much of the liquid as possible. Discard the coconut and save only the liquids (which are known as coconut milk).

In a flameproof casserole heat the vegetable oil and in this saute the onions until golden brown. Stir in the tomatoes, garlic and spices and fry for 4 - 5 minutes. Add the meat and continue to fry, turning regularly, until the meat has lightly browned on all sides. Stir in the coconut milk and salt, cover and simmer very gently until the meat is tender ( 1 - 1 1/2 hours), adding a little water if the liquid evaporates before the meat is done. A few minutes before the end of cooking stir in the lemon juice.

Serve hot with boiled rice and chutney. (Serves 4).

Cumberland Sausage Stew with Spiced Oranges
A traditional recipe from Virginia

For the stew:
1/2 kilo red cabbage
450 gr. Cumberland sausages or knockwurst
2 medium onions, chopped coarsely
2 tsp. juniper berries
1 tsp. salt
freshly ground black pepper
300 ml. apple cider or Calvados
1 Tbsp. wine vinegar
3 Tbsp. red currant jelly
2 sweet apples, cored and cut in thick slices

For the spiced oranges:
2 oranges
1/4 cup sugar
8 whole cloves
1/8 tsp. ground cinnamon

Cut the hard center core from the cabbage and shred the rest coarsely. Transfer the shredded cabbage to a flameproof casserole or saucepan together with the sausages, onion, juniper berries, salt and pepper.

In a jar or bowl mix together the cider, vinegar and red currant jelly and pour into the casserole. Bring just to simmering and then simmer gently, covered for 1 hour. Add the apples and continue simmering for 1 hour longer.

To prepare the spiced oranges: While the stew is cooking remove the peel and pith from the oranges and slice the flesh crosswise. In a saucepan combine 6 Tbsp. of water, the sugar and spices to the boil and boil for 3 minutes. Add the oranges and simmer for 3- 4 minutes longer.

To serve, distribute the stew on 4 plates and on each portion distribute the orange slices. (Serves 4).

Banana Bread
A recipe from the island of Jamaica

2 1/2 cups flour
1 Tbsp. baking powder
1/2 tsp. baking soda
1/4 tsp. salt
1/4 tsp. ground cardamom
1/4 tsp. ground mace
1/2 cup butter
3/4 cup sugar
2 eggs
1/4 tsp. vanilla extract
1 cup mashed banana
3/4 cup chopped walnuts

Sift together the flour, bicarbonate of soda, salt and spices. Cream the butter and sugar until light and then gradually beat in the eggs and vanilla extract. Stir in the flour and mashed banana alternatively and finally, mix in the nuts.

Transfer the mixture to an oiled loaf tin, level the top and bake in an oven that has been preheated to 180 degrees Celsius for 55 - 60 minutes. Leave in the tin to cool before turning out. Serve cut into slices and with plenty of butter so that people can butter their own slices. Serve warm or at room temperature.

© Daniel Rogov